Climate change and developing countries

This article takes stock of current knowledge of climate change and the response to this major problem affecting the environment and economic development. It begins with a brief review of climate change science and impacts as assessed by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. It then reports on the status of the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change and its Kyoto Protocol, and summarizes national commitments to making the effort required to mitigate climate change by limiting the emission of greenhouse gases. The main issues still to be addressed are identified, focusing in particular on carbon markets and adaptation funding. Future prospects are considered, including possible emissions targets for developing countries. The article thus focuses on the key issues of concern for developing countries

One step forward, two steps back? The governance of the World Bank Climate Investment Funds

The problem, in our opinion is that the World Bank tries to do so with complete disregard of the lessons reflected in the Paris Declaration. This is not only apparent in what does come across as a somewhat paternalistic tone in the blueprint (‘We need to transform … developing countries’) but much more seriously in the proposed governance structure for the CIFs. We feel that the many elements of the blueprint which are worthy of success will be unnecessarily doomed to failure if these governance shortcomings are not rectified speedily and whole-heartedly

Fair and effective multilateralism in the post-Copenhagen climate negotiations

Copenhagen failed to agree a new legal treaty, and fragmentation is now a possible scenario. What options exist for a fair and effective multilateralism that might bring about the next turning point? Possible changes are considered in the context of the ‘how, what, where and who’ of multilateral climate negotiations. Fair process is crucial to an acceptable outcome. In order to increase effectiveness, multilateralism may need to define contributions from smaller groups, on a representative basis. The functions of other fora must be to build common understanding, whereas decisions and agreements are negotiated under the UNFCCC and its instruments. Reorganization of work within the UNFCCC will need to enhance its catalytic role, including how it supports domestic action. A mix of processes is needed to speed up the pace of decision-making, combining well-established UN procedures with some innovative ideas including those from the theory and practice in other multilateral environmental agreements. A review in 2015 must increase ambition. We need to invest in the UNFCCC, which remains the only legitimate, fully inclusive forum. Only a legally binding agreement ensures that others also act (‘fair’) and a binding nature is the best assurance of implementation (‘effective’). Equity demands a fair and effective outcome

Energy Development and Climate Change: Decarbonising Growth in South Africa

This paper presents a case study of human development and climate change in South Africa. It starts by outlining the key development challenges that the country faces and the history of recent responses in development policy. Section 2 hones in on the energy sector, providing a brief profile of the sector contributing most to greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions. The implications of South Africa’s ‘minerals-energy complex’1 for its GHG emissions profile are examined in section 3. Section 4 discusses the context and development of South African climate change policy, and examines implementation progress to date. The final section of the paper begins with a summary analysis of key mitigation options in energy efficiency, changes in the fuel mix and structural changes. Section 5 then examines the key constraints facing the implementation of such options, before concluding with possibilities for international cooperation to contribute to sustainable development and mitigation in South Africa

Methodologies for carbon budgets in South Africa

The paper reviews previous work at national and sectoral level. Previous work on mitigation potential included the LTMS, on consideration of which Cabinet outlined its vision and strategic direction for emissions to peak, plateau and decline. Previous work directly on carbon budgets was commissioned by WWF, outlining the approach for a low-carbon action plan. The report suggested an important principle for allocation, namely that sectors should motivate for their share of the NCB based on the best used, in particular the most carbon-effective contribution to South Africa’s development needs. The paper examines analytical tools based on work in South Africa, to model the energy economy as a system

Carbon capture and storage in South Africa

Some three-quarters of South Africa’s primary energy supply and 93 percent of its electricity are derived from coal (NER, 2002; DME, 2003b). Even in more optimistic energy policy scenarios (De Villiers and others, 1999; EDRC, 2003; Banks & Schäffler, 2005), coal continues to provide for the majority of South Africa’s energy needs over the next 20 to 30 years. Almost 80 percent of GHG emissions come from the energy sector—both supply and use—and most of these are in the form of carbon dioxide (Van der Merwe & Scholes, 1998; RSA, 2004). Making South Africa’s energy system more sustainable is a transition that will take decades. Making energy development in South Africa more sustainable will require attention to solutions that deal with CO2 emissions from coal. Together, these factors mean that an evaluation of the sustainability of carbon capture and storage (CCS) technologies is an important element of climate policy

Effects of processing on the stability of molybdenum oxide ultra-thin films

The effects of wet chemical processing conventionally employed in device fabrication standards are systematically studied on molybdenum oxide (MoOx) ultra-thin films. We have combined x-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS), angle resolved XPS and x-ray reflectivity techniques to provide deep insights into the changes in composition, structure and electronic states upon treatment of films with different initial stoichiometry prepared by reactive sputtering. Our results show significant reduction effects associated with the development of gap states in MoOx, as well as changes in the composition, density and structure of the films, systematically correlated with the initial oxidation state of Mo.Comment: 16 pages, 5 figures, Appendix include

Energy efficiency and the CDM in South Africa: constraints and opportunities

Energy-efficiency projects were expected to constitute an important project type under the Clean Development Mechanism (CDM). In South Africa, there is significant potential for energy savings in several sectors. The savings possible in industry have been demonstrated through plant-level energy audits, measurement and verification of Eskom’s Demand Side Management (DSM) programme and national energy modelling. Enabling policy for energy efficiency and demand-side management has been adopted by government and the utility, Eskom. A dedicated National Energy Efficiency Agency (NEEA) was established in 2006. Yet, energy-efficiency still fails to realise its potential. The paper seeks to dispel the misconception that energy efficiency projects might not be ‘additional’ under the CDM. Analysis of barriers, which is well understood by those dealing with energy efficiency, can be used to demonstrate additionality. A standard tool for demonstrating additionality is now available, as are baseline methodologies for both large and small-scale CDM projects. It should, therefore, be clear that energy efficiency projects are not a priori ruled out as non-additional. Each project has to demonstrate additionality, as for any other project type. Finances are available from various sources, and the CDM can offer further funding for initial costs, or in removing the barriers to energy-efficiency projects. Internationally, energy efficiency initially did not account for large numbers of CDM projects, nor a major share of carbon credits. With the recent growth in CDM projects, however, the numbers of energy-efficiency projects are increasing internationally. In South Africa, analysis of the emerging CDM portfolio shows that energy-efficiency projects are much better represented at the concept stage than in fully designed CDM projects. The major elements for implementing energy efficiency projects exist – dedicated institutions, enabling policy frameworks, approved methodologies and even an electricity crisis to raise awareness. Funding is available from various sources, and the CDM can offer further funding for initial costs or in removing the barriers to energy-efficiency projects. The CDM rules should soon allow for registration of entire programmes, which could include energy efficiency standards or demand-side management. Innovative financing solutions such as clean energy lending can assist as well. All that seems to be needed is a concerted effort to realise the potential. Such efforts could be driven by the Designated National Authority or the National Energy Efficiency Agency. Together with initiatives from the private sector, a dedicated effort might help South Africa find a clear route for energy-efficiency projects under the CDM in South Africa

What factors influence mitigative capacity ?

Cet article s'intéresse aux déterminants de la capacité à atténuer le changement climatique. Ceux-ci ont été élaborés initialement dans un papier de Yohe puis dans le troisième rapport d'évaluation du GIEC. Après avoir revisité la définition de la capacité à atténuer le changement climatique, nous identifions trois groupes de facteurs influençant de façon croisée cette capacité : des facteurs économiques, technologiques et institutionnels. Au niveau économique, ce sont à la fois le revenu, le coût de réduction des émissions et le coût d'opportunité lié aux réductions qui forgent la capacité d'atténuation. Du côté technologique, c'est la capacité à absorber ou à développer des technologies peu émettrices de gaz à effet de serre qui est déterminante. Enfin, au niveau institutionnel, l'efficacité de la régulation gouvernementale, la transparence des règles de marché, une main d'œuvre qualifiée et une sensibilisation de la population sont des éléments clés. Notre analyse est menée à la fois qualitativement et quantitativement. Elle permet de montrer comment les facteurs influençant la capacité d'atténuation varient d'un pays à l'autrechangement climatique ; capacité d'atténuation ; politique environnementale